History narrates the traces left by humanity, the transformation of societies, and the values contributed by cultures to each other. In Ephesus, history can be read not only in inscriptions and monuments but also in its streets, stones, and traces of daily life. Each era has added a new layer to Ephesus's identity, transforming the city into a unique historical stage.
According to legendary accounts, Ephesus was founded by women warriors known as Amazons, and its name is thought to derive from the city of Apaša (Apasas) mentioned in Hittite sources, meaning city of the Great Mother Goddess. Archaeological findings indicate that the region of Ephesus has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age (6000 BC). In the 10th century BC, Greek colonists of Attic-Ionian origin laid the first foundations of the city, replacing the people of the Arzawa Kingdom who lived in the region. During the Classical Age, Ephesus was one of the twelve cities of Ionia and became one of the wealthiest cities in the Mediterranean during the Lydian kings. The Temple of Artemis (Artemision) built during this time gained fame as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The foundation of the temple dates back to the 7th century BC and was completed around 550 BC as a magnificent marble structure with the support of the Lydian King Kroisos (Croesus).
After the period under the dominance of the Persian Empire, Ephesus was liberated from the Persians by Alexander the Great in 334 BC. One of his successors, Lysimachos, relocated and reconstructed the city approximately 2.5 km southwest to its current location in the early 3rd century BC because its original site had become unhealthy due to marshland. This new Ephesus quickly became one of the most important trading ports of the Mediterranean. The city again began to be called “Ephesus” in 281 BC. Entering Roman rule as a result of the will of the King of Pergamon in 129 BC, Ephesus was included in the Province of Asia (Asya Eyaleti). Despite undergoing some turmoil during the Hellenistic and late Republic periods (for example, the massacre of Asian Roman citizens by Mithridates in 88 BC and the subsequent Roman retribution), the city regained peace under the auspices of the Roman Empire.
The magnificent façade of the Library of Celsus, built in the 2nd century AD in the Ancient City of Ephesus, which has survived to this day. During the Roman Empire, Ephesus experienced its most brilliant era. Particularly in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the city underwent what was practically a golden age; it was made the capital of the Province of Asia under Roman Emperor Augustus and its population exceeded approximately 200,000, becoming one of the largest metropolises of its time. During this period of prosperity, Ephesus was filled with monumental structures adorned with marble: its large theater (with a capacity of about 25,000, the largest ancient theater in Anatolia), its majestic temples, and the Library of Celsus, gaining fame with such buildings.
Ephesus served as a bridge between the Eastern and Western worlds, and as such, it became one of the most vibrant hubs of trade, culture, and intellectual life during the Roman era. The famous orator Aelius Aristides called Ephesus “the greatest marketplace of Asia” and praised the city as an Enlightened intellectual center (for instance, the second-largest school of philosophy in the Aegean was here). The Temple of Artemis functioned not only as a religious shrine but also as a financial institution of its time: the temple was regarded as “the general bank of Asia” and provided refuge to those in need of credit. Roman emperors also gave special attention to this beautiful city, with some even visiting Ephesus and staying for a while, contributing to its construction activities. Aristides, who lived in the mid-2nd century, described the cosmopolitan structure and prosperity of Ephesus, stating:
“All people who reside between the Hercules Pillars (the Strait of Gibraltar) and the Phasis River (on the eastern Black Sea) are familiar with Ephesus due to the international nature of transportation means and the flawless hospitality facilities. Everyone comes there as if it were their own homeland; it is the general bank of Asia and the refuge for those in need of credit.”
Ephesus also played a significant role in the spread of Christianity. Apostle Paul (Saint Paul) came to the city in the 1st century AD, preaching for nearly three years and organizing the first communities of the new religion. According to tradition, Apostle John (Saint John) also settled in Ephesus with the Virgin Mary and was buried on Ayasuluk Hill at the end of his life. One of the Seven Churches of Asia mentioned in the Book of Revelation was the Church of Ephesus. After Christianity became the official religion of Rome, and paganism declined, the Third Ecumenical Council (First Council of Ephesus) convened in 431 took important decisions for the Christian world. During this period, the cult of Artemis and other pagan beliefs gradually came to an end; large temples were abandoned and replaced by churches.
From the 3rd century AD, the importance of Ephesus began to decline. The city was invaded and destroyed by the Goths in 263. Though the city was rebuilt, the alluvium brought by the Küçük Menderes River eventually filled the harbor over time, causing Ephesus to become miles inland and lose its commercial advantage. Although Emperor Hadrian attempted to clear the harbor, these efforts were unsuccessful. The great earthquake of 614 further damaged the city, diminishing its remains’ importance significantly. As the Arab raids of the 7th century affected coastal cities, the people of Ephesus began moving to the more secure surrounding area of Ayasuluk Hill (the original settlement area of the city). During the Byzantine period, the city center entirely relocated to the Ayasuluk region, and the name Ephesus was eventually forgotten, with the new settlement being called Ayasuluk. The region was conquered by the Turks of the Aydınoğulları Beylığı in the early 1300s. In the late Middle Ages, Ayasuluk continued to exist for a while as the capital of the Aydınoğulları and an important port city. However, during the Ottoman period, the complete silting of the harbor and malaria outbreaks caused the population to decrease rapidly; by the 17th century, only a ruined village remained at Ayasuluk. Over time, this place was also abandoned, transforming the region into a quiet archaeological site. Today, the area where ancient Ephesus was located is home to the district of Selçuk at the foot of Ayasuluk Hill.
The ruins of Ephesus have attracted travelers over the centuries, and scientific research began in the 19th century. The foundations of the Temple of Artemis were uncovered in initial excavations led by John T. Wood for the British Museum from 1863 to 1869. In subsequent years, various teams, particularly from the Austrian Archaeological Institute, revealed the ancient structures in Ephesus. The Ephesus Archaeological Site was accepted into the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2015. By 2024, it welcomed over 2.6 million visitors, claiming the title of Turkey’s most visited open-air museum. The Ancient City of Ephesus, today both in the eyes of the archaeology world and travelers, remains a unique historical treasure reflecting the splendor of the past.
